2016年,普林斯顿大学的Christopher C. Achen和范德堡大学的Larry M. Bartels出版了广受瞩目的新书《现实主义者眼中的民主:为何选举并不能产生回应性政府 》。此书罗列了丰富有趣的数据与实证研究,却得出了非常悲观的结论。Achen和Bartels指出,大量研究表明选民缺乏理性,且常常不了解关键的政治和经济信息。在他们看来,这导致选举起不到选择政客和问责政府的作用,政策也不会更好地服务于选民的偏好和福祉。
Achen与Bartels 此书的背后,是政治思想中一支由来已久的传统(Campbell et al. 1960; Delli Carpini and Keeter 1996; Wolfer 2007)。这些观察者敏锐地捕捉到了选民行为中的低信息或非理性成分,从这一观察中得出的标准结论往往是:选举既不是“选择领导人的有用机制”,也不构成“对领导人的可信制约”( Delli Carpini and Keeter 1996)。
Fowler和Hall甚至怀疑,1916年新泽西的海岸诸郡或许连可信的个案都算不上。Achen和Bartels拿出他们十五年前的没有同行评议的研究结果,统计技术上很难经过今天的检验。应用微观经济学者早就发现,在比较不同区域相对趋势的研究中,传统的标准误计算会大大高估精确性,造成大量“假阳性”(Bertrand et al. 2004)。具体到这项研究而言,沙滩一带的各郡并非相互独立的政治区域,他们受到一系列相似因素的影响,这在一定意义上让有效“样本量”小于名义样本量。Fowler和Hall用原文的方法分析了大量没有出现鲨鱼袭击的海岸州和选举年,发现三成情况下会出现显著结果。这说明Achen和Bartels低估了他们方法捕捉到的噪音——即使没有鲨鱼袭击,海滩沿岸的郡也会因为各种各样的原因产生与其他地方不同的投票趋势。Fowler和Hall还指出,Achen和Bartels的结果对模型的小调整非常敏感。
证据也支持这一诠释:Healy和Malhotra (2010)研究了龙卷风对美国各郡的破坏及其政治后果,他们发现龙卷风造成的死亡并不影响在任总统的政党在受灾郡的后续得票,但造成的经济损失会导致失票。作者认为,这并不表明选民只关心自己的钱包而不关心本地的伤亡(美国选民的投票行为对政府政策导致的本地少量死亡是敏感的,见Grose & Oppenheimer 2007; Karol & Miguel 2007),这是因为政府客观上很难影响龙卷风造成伤亡,却可以通过救灾活动减轻经济损失。因此选民认识到政府只对经济损失负责。此外,周边各郡的损失情况也会影响本郡的选票,说明选民并不仅仅是根据自己的境遇和体验感性地投票,他们也利用临近地区的赈灾措施推断政府的回应程度和治理能力。
美国州级行政机构为探究这个问题提供了理想的试验场。近半个世纪以来,美国三分之一的州修宪把州长的任期限制从一任提高为两任。如果控制住州、年份等一系列变量,比较各州改革前后的州长第一任期的表现,可以识别连任激励的效应——两组州长都是第一次执政,但只有改革后的一组可以连任。比较改革前的州长第一任期的表现和改革后的州长第二任期的表现,得到的是选举甄选的效应——两组州长都不能连任,但只有后者经过选民的回溯式评估和筛选。数据表明,存在选举激励效应或甄选效应的任期下,州内的经济增长加快、财政状况更稳健、税收和支出较低,激励和筛选的效应都显著且大小相仿(Alt et al. 2011)。 对采取双任期制各州的结构式分析也得出类似结果,但激励效应似乎更大 (Aruoba et al. 2015)。
在发展中国家,选举同样起着提高绩效的作用,即使在腐败横行的拉美国家也如此。其机制主要是通过提供连任激励。2003年,巴西的卢拉联邦政府开始随机抽取巴西城市进行审计,并把各市数据公示在联邦政府网站上。这些数据显示,其他条件相同的情况下,可以连任的市长比不能连任的市长贪污少三成左右,而且连任激励的重要性在缺乏本地媒体监督的低信息环境下尤其突出 (Ferraz & Finan 2011)。同样在这一时期的巴西,中央政府试图缓解学龄儿童提前退学的问题,用现金奖励一部分低收入家庭儿童上学,市政府则负责选择受益家庭和实施政策。该项目有效地减少了提前退学,但幅度在市政府可以寻求连任的城市要大36%(de Janvry et al. 2012)。
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