(2.2)先来看(c)。民粹主义研究是不是一个过时的领域?答案自然是否定的。自从希尔斯(Edward Shils)1954年的论文<民粹主义与法治>(“Populism and the Rule of Law”)使得“民粹主义”在英文中成为一个一般性的概念、并被作为社会科学(尤其是政治学与社会学)的重要对象后,对民粹主义现象的研究,无论理论层面还是经验层面,都在持续不断地发展。尽管早期的民粹主义研究曾在70年代末短暂地陷入低谷,然而80、90年代以来,一方面随着对旧有研究范式的突破——特别是现代化理论(modernization theory)与依赖理论(dependency theory)分别在70年代早期与晚期遭到质疑,打破了之前研究者将民粹主义现象与特定社会经济结构或历史条件相联系的思维定式,为新的理论建构提供了空间——,另一方面随着民粹主义现象在世界范围内的频繁化与多样化,民粹主义研究不但没有过时或边缘化,而且在近二十年间愈发繁荣,逐渐成为政治学(以及其它社会科学)中的一个热点领域。其文献不敢说汗牛充栋,至少也是蔚为大观。这里略举几本90年代以来出版的专著或论文集:
专门研究当前欧洲(以及美国等其它成熟民主国家)“新民粹主义”现象的著作如
Jack Hayward (1996 ed.), Elitism, Populism, and European Politics;
Hans-Georg Betz & Stefan Immerfall (1998, eds.), The New Politics of the Right: Neo-Populist Parties and Movements in Established Democracies;
Mazzoleni, Stewart & Horsfield (2003, eds.), The Media and Neo-Populism: A Contemporary Comparative Analysis;
Jens Rydgren (2004), The Populist Challenge: Political Protest and Ethno-Nationalist Mobilization in France;
Mabel Berezin (2009), Illiberal Politics in Neoliberal Times: Culture, Security and Populism in the New Europe;
专门研究拉美民粹主义的著作如
Rudiger Dornbusch & Sebastián Edwards (1992, eds.), The Macroeconomics of Populism in Latin America;
Felipe Agüero & Jeffrey Stark (1998, eds.), Fault Lines of Democracy in Post-Transition Latin America;
Michael Conniff (1999, ed.), Populism in Latin America;
Carlos de la Torre (2000), Populist Seduction in Latin America: The Ecuadorian Experience;
Kurt Weyland (2002), The Politics of Market Reforms in Fragile Democracies: Argentina, Brazil, Peru and Venezuela;
Steven Levitsky (2003), Transforming Labor-Based Parties in Latin America: Argentine Peronism and Comparative Perspective;
Kirk Hawkins (2010), Venezuela's Chavismo and Populism in Comparative Perspective;
其它试图对民粹主义进行系统的概念澄清与比较分析,以建立一般性理论的著作如
Paul Taggart (2000), Populism;
Yves Mény & Yves Surel (2002), Democracies and the Populist Challenge;
Margaret Canovan (2005), The People;
Ernest Laclau (2005), On Populist Reason;
Francisco Panizza (2005, ed.), Populism and the Mirror of Democracy;
Benjamin Arditi (2007), Politics on the Edges of Liberalism: Difference, Populism, Revolution, Agitation;
除专著与论文外,近几十年民粹主义研究的蓬勃发展也反映在社会科学工具书的编撰中。由于五、六十年代学术界对民粹主义的研究刚刚起步,尚未形成规模——早期民粹主义研究的成果直到1969年才得到系统的整理(Ionescu & Gellner, 1969)——,因此在1964年联合国教科文组织委托Julius Gould与William Lester Kolb合编的《社会科学辞典》(Dictionary of the Social Sciences)中,并未收录“民粹主义”一词;而到了2002年,牛津大学出版社委托当代社科领域的领军人物卡尔霍恩(Craig Calhoun)重新编撰《社会科学辞典》时,“民粹主义”词条已经有了三个自然段的篇幅。
(2.4)那么英文学术文献中对“民粹主义”一词的使用与日常对话(包括中国的网络辩论)中究竟是否一致呢?本文不可能(也没有必要)一一列举各个研究者对民粹主义的理解,因此最好的办法是选取一些专业性较强、并且公认较权威的工具书为例。这样的工具书我手头方便查阅的有两部,一是政治学巨擘李普塞特(Seymour Martin Lipset)1995年主编的四卷本《民主百科全书》(The Encyclopedia of Democracy),另一部则是前面提到由卡尔霍恩主编的2002年版《社会科学辞典》。且看二者分别如何解释“民粹主义”:
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Arditi, Benjamin. 2007. Politics on the Edges of Liberalism: Difference, Populism, Revolution, Agitation. Edinburgh University Press.
Calhoun, Craig. 2002, ed. Dictionary of the Social Sciences. Oxford University Press.
Canovan, Margaret. 2005. The People. Polity.
Dahl, Robert. 1956. A Preface to Democratic Theory. University of Chicago Press.
Gallie, Walter Bryce. 1956. “Essentially Contested Concepts,” Proceedings of the Aristotelian Society 56: 167-198.
Gaus, Gerald. 2000. Political Concepts and Political Theories. Westview Press.
Gerring, John. 1999. “What Makes a Concept Good? A Criterial Framework for Understanding Concept Formation in the Social Sciences,” Polity 31: 357-393.
Gould, Julius & William Lester Kolb. 1964, eds. A Dictionary of the Social Sciences. The Free Press.
Ionescu, Ghiţă & Ernest Gellner. 1969, eds. Populism: Its Meaning and National Characteristics. The Macmillan Company.
Laclau, Ernest. 2005. On Populist Reason. Verso.
Lipset, Seymour Martin. 1995. The Encyclopedia of Democracy. Congressional Quarterly.
MacRae, Donald. 1969. “Populism as an Ideology,” in Ionescu & Gellner (eds.), Populism: Its Meaning and National Characteristics. The Macmillan Company. 153-165.
Mason, Andrew. 1990. “On Explaining Political Disagreement: The Notion of an Essentially Contested Concept,” Inquiry: An Interdisciplinary Journal of Philosophy 33: 81-98.
Minogue, Kenneth. 1969. “Populism as a Political Movement,” in Ionescu & Gellner (eds.), Populism: Its Meaning and National Characteristics. The Macmillan Company. 197-211.
Mudde, Cas. 2004. “The Populist Zeitgeist,” Government and Opposition 39: 541-563.
Panizza, Francisco. 2005. “Introduction: Populism and the Mirror of Democracy,” in Francisco Panizza (ed.), Populism and the Mirror of Democracy. Verso. 1-31.
Riker, William. 1988. Liberalism against Populism: A Confrontation between the Theory of Democracy and the Theory of Social Choice. Waveland Press.
Shils, Edward. 1954. “Populism and the Rule of Law,” University of Chicago Law School Conference on Jurisprudence and Politics. Conference Series No. 15: 91-107.
Shils, Edward. 1956. The Torment of Secrecy: The Background and Consequences of American Security Policies. The Free Press.
Weyland, Kurt. 2001. “Clarifying a Contested Concept: Populism in the Study of Latin American Politics,” Comparative Politics 34: 1-22.
Wiles, Peter. 1969. “A Syndrome, Not a Doctrine,” in Ionescu & Gellner (eds.), Populism: Its Meaning and National Characteristics. The Macmillan Company. 166-179.
Worsley, Peter. 1969. “The Concept of Populism,” in Ionescu & Gellner (eds.), Populism: Its Meaning and National Characteristics. The Macmillan Company. 212-250.