80年代以前欧洲民粹主义运动的相对稀少——被公认为民粹现象的只有50年代法国的普加德主义(Poujadism)等寥寥几例——看似验证了这种把民粹主义与社会经济结构落后相联系的倾向的正确性。然而事实上,正如科学哲学家汉森(Norwood Russell Hanson)在其1958年的名著《发现的模式》(Patterns of Discovery)中所指出的,观察结果中总是已经渗透着理论,民粹主义研究中这种理论倾向的存在本身就影响了对案例的认知与接受。比如60年代末欧美风起云涌的左派学生运动,在许多方面表现出强烈的民粹元素(Mudde, 2004),但当时几乎没有人想到要将其与民粹主义联系起来。
更让学者们大跌眼镜的是,80年代初拉美研究者们“民粹已死,有事烧纸”的话音刚落,它却又以形形色色的新面貌,迅速地在世界各地蔓延开来。以拉美各国为例,阿根廷的梅内姆(任期1989-1999)、基什内尔(2003-2007)、巴西的科洛尔(1990-1992)、秘鲁的藤森(1990-2000)、加西亚(1985-1990、2006-2011)、委内瑞拉的查韦斯(1999迄今)、玻利维亚的莫拉莱斯(2006迄今)等等政治人物,尽管在具体上台方式、选民基础、执政联盟搭建模式、意识形态归属、实际政策内容、行事风格等方面千差万别,但学者一般承认,这些人背后无一不涌动着民粹主义的暗潮,而他们的执政也都对民主制度造成了轻重不一的破坏(Weyland, 2002; Roberts et al., 2007)。
另外,从这些案例中也可以看出,民粹主义本身并没有内在于其思想的政策主张,或者完整的、实质性的意识形态内容。在80年代以前,人们倾向于认为,民粹主义者上台后,必然要采取贸易保护主义、财政挥霍、收入再分配等经济政策,因为非如此则不足以讨好作为其执政基础的中下层选民,正如美国的休伊·朗主义与拉美的经典民粹主义所显示的那样。然而80年代中期以后拉美新一拨民粹主义者中,尽管也还有不少经济左翼分子,但是更多人(比如梅内姆、藤森等等)借助民粹政治手段推行的,却是新自由主义的市场化政策(Roberts et al., 2007)。在当代美国,保守派与自由派都发展出了各自的民粹主义变种,从极右的茶党到极左的占领华尔街,其政策诉求在各个方面都针锋相对。至于欧洲新民粹主义,几乎把全部注意力放在排斥外来移民与非西方文化上,经济政策多数时候只占附属的地位。
A. 民粹主义与民主一样,都主张国家的主权属于人民、主张统治者与被统治者之间的平等(Shils, 1954),但民粹主义者对“人民”的认知,是以一种简单粗暴的二分法进行的(Mudde, 2004)。在民粹主义的话语模式中,社会往往被以“我们人民”和“他们××”(这里的“××”根据需要可以填上“精英”、“统治者”、“华盛顿圈内人”、“1%”、“犹太银行家”、“异教徒”、“外来移民”等等,而“人民”的范围也相应地有所变化)的方式表述为两个相互之间截然有别、内部又高度同质化的群体,而社会身份与政治利益的多元性(Dahl, 1956)则有意无意地受到忽略。
B. 精英主义(elitism)同样是以简单粗暴的二分法来认知社会,把“精英”和“大众”表述为截然有别的同质化群体。民粹主义与精英主义的区别,并不完全在于“我们”到底是“人民”还是“精英”,“他们”到底是“××(精英、统治者……)”还是“大众”(不少自觉并不属于精英阶层的人同样认同精英主义,觉得国家还是留给“他们那些专业人士”来管理比较好;反过来,当俄国“民粹派”主张“到人民中去”时,实际上已经默认了自己并不是,或者至少尚未成为,“人民”的一分子),而在于对两者之间高下优劣的不同想象(Mudde, 2004)。
E. 由于当前的政治已经完全被建制内的精英所把持,因此诉诸常规渠道是徒劳无功的,唯一的办法是发动人民的力量,通过程序外的集体行动,或者通过频繁地启动紧急程序比如公投(Barr, 2009),来对抗精英的威胁。——需要注意的是,民粹主义对建制、对程序的敌意并不必然意味着要以暴力方式推翻民主程序,特别是代议选举制度和政党体系;相反,前面已经提到,当代民粹主义者越来越善于采取通过选举打入议会和政府内部的策略来对建制进行洗牌,并实现自己的政治意图。
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