本帖最后由 choi 于 12-30-2013 16:01 编辑
I did a thorough research and use traditional Chinese (except the last item, a book printed in Shanghai) because a significant part of the Economist article is about Taiwan. You may start from the Russian treaty in (a)(iii).
Note:
(a) "A 'war party' agitated for his [WANYAN Chonghou's] death. Foreign diplomats, meanwhile, pleaded for his life."
(i) war party (n)
www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/war+party
(ii) 完顏崇厚 (1824-1893)
崇厚
http://zh.wikipedia.org/zh-tw/%E5%B4%87%E5%8E%9A
(1878年（光緒四年）出使俄國，擅自與俄簽訂《里瓦幾亞條約》，因此被彈劾入獄，後降職獲釋)
(iii) 里瓦幾亞條約 Treaty of Livadia
Livadia Palace
en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Livadia_Palace
(in Livadiya, Crimea in southern Ukraine; Yalta Conference was held there in 1945)
(iv) Treaty of Saint Petersburg (1881)
en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Treaty_of_Saint_Petersburg_(1881)
(also known as Treaty of Ili 伊犁條約; replaced Treaty of Livadia of 1979)
Quote: “In 1871, as the Chinese imperial authority in Xinjiang had collapsed due to the Muslim Rebellion [Dungan revolt (1862-1877; English Wiki: 同治新疆回變, as opposed to Chinese Wiki: 甘陝回變 in (b)(i) below]. Russia occupied the Ili Basin伊犁河谷 region. Chinese authority in Xinjiang was reestablished by 1877.”
* Ili River
en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ili_river
drains into Central Asia, so Ili basin opens into Central Asia, too--not into China.
(b) "The Qing regime still saw itself as supreme on the planet, because for so long it had evidently been so. But corruption and a costly rebellion had weakened the dynasty. * * * From 1850 the country was in the grip of another costly uprising, the Taiping Rebellion, which would nearly bring down the empire."
(i) 清朝
zh.wikipedia.org/zh-tw/%E6%B8%85%E6%9C%9D
(“嘉慶帝對貪污深惡痛絕，親政後賜死和珅，抄收其家產。然而沒有全面整頓政風，加上藉助賣官制度以平衡開支，使得貪污腐敗的風氣更加擴大，加重地方人民的負擔。另外還有河道與漕運淤塞的難題。針對乾隆時期過度開銷的弊端，嘉慶帝提倡節儉，縮減朝廷與宗室的開支，把貧窮的旗民送到關外開墾。然而，最後因為朝野強烈的反彈聲浪而妥協。此時八旗兵與綠營軍紀腐敗不可堪用，只能靠地方團練平定亂事，後期更產生湘軍與淮軍等地方軍。當時民亂不斷，有白蓮教的川楚教亂 [1795-1804]、東南有海盜侵襲，華北又有天理教之亂 [or 癸酉之變 in Chinese Wiki; 1813]。道光之後又有太平天國之亂、捻亂 [1853-1868] 以及甘陝回變 [Dungan revolt; 1862-1873] 與雲南回變，再加上鴉片戰爭等外患，一度使清廷搖搖欲墜)
(ii) Dungan people 東干族
en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dungan_people
(a Russian word used in territories of the former Soviet Union to refer to a Muslim people of Chinese origin [living there, in former Soviet Union]; “In the Russian Empire, Soviet Union, and the post-Soviet states, the Dungans continue to refer to themselves as the Hui people 回族. The name Dungan is of obscure origin”)
(iii) Taiping Rebellion (1850-1864)
(c) “Chonghou was appointed to the newly created post of superintendent of trade at Tianjin * * * In the spring of 1870 a cloud of suspicion and rumour enveloped the French-run Catholic church and orphanage in Tianjin. Missionaries, priests and nuns were said to be murdering children, and extracting their hearts and eyes in barbarous Western rituals. * * * On June 21st 1870 a Chinese mob set upon the French consul, tearing him limb from limb in the street (the consul had unwisely fired his pistol at a Chinese official, wounding one of his retinue). The mob slaughtered about 20 foreigners, mostly French, including two priests and ten nuns, and dozens of Chinese converts to Catholicism. * * * [Chonghou was dispatched to France to] issue the dynasty's formal apology [for Tianjin Massacre, “becoming the first imperial official to lead a diplomatic mission for over a century”] * * * the French were busy at war with Prussia."
(i) Tianjin Massacre 天津教案
en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tianjin_Massacre
("While the Chinese magistrate's staff attempted to suppress the riot, the French Consul visited the magistrate's official quarters to lodge an angry diatribe, even going so far as to draw his sword and embed it in the magistrate's table. The magistrate was not there, however, and Fontanier left empty-handed. The series of events afterwards are somewhat confused: while both Chinese and French histories agree [French Consul Henri-Victor] Fontanier shot a Chinese assistant dead after an argument with the magistrate (who was just entering his office as the Consul was leaving), the French version says Fontanier's shot only came after he was threatened by the mob and the magistrate. In any case, both the French Consul and his assistant, M Simon, were murdered by the rioters and their bodies dumped in the river")
The Wiki page does not give a date, but Economist says it was June 21, 1870.
(ii) Franco-Prussian War (July 19, 1870 – May 10, 1871)
(d) “One [British] newspaper described him, rather less unfairly, as having paid for his place in life. On June 29th 1873 that place was beside Emperor Tongzhi, escorting foreign diplomats to the first imperial audience of this kind in 80 years. Chonghou had returned a year earlier from his humiliating apology mission and been appointed to the Board of War and the Zongli Yamen, which advised the court on foreign affairs. The Zongli Yamen, a relatively new body, was a good match for Chonghou, as it proved disastrously ineffective. The first audience the emperor gave on that summer day, to an envoy from Japan, was a momentous test for his foreign-policy team. Actually it was more a trap than a test, and the Chinese obligingly fell into it. The trap concerned a chain of islands between the two countries, the Ryukyu islands, which stretch from Okinawa towards Taiwan. The Ryukyu kingdom paid tribute to both China and Japan but was nominally independent, while Taiwan then belonged to China. What the Zongli Yamen failed to appreciate was just how intent Japan was on changing that status quo.
The Japanese foreign minister came to the court personally to ask that the emperor pay compensation for an attack on sailors from the Ryukyu islands by aborigines on the eastern end of Taiwan. By making this request, Japan was asserting sovereignty over the Ryukyus (and acknowledging Chinese sovereignty over Taiwan). Put off by the damages, China disavowed responsibility and told the Japanese to resolve the matter themselves. That was all the invitation Japan needed. It dispatched an expeditionary force to Taiwan (including some Americans). China, belatedly realising that Japan might use this as a pretext to stake a claim to Taiwan, sent its own force to the island. Suddenly the situation seemed at risk of spinning out of control. HB Morse, a historian, wrote, in a summary with eerie resonance today: “The two countries seemed to be drifting into war, which might at any moment be precipitated by a chance collision between their forces.’ The British minister to China, Thomas Francis Wade, appealed to both sides for a settlement. China ultimately paid a ransom to Japan to withdraw from Taiwan. ‘I certainly did not expect to find China willing to pay for being invaded,’ Wade quipped. It was another low point for Beijing’s foreign relations. The extent of Chonghou’s role is unclear: he was one of ten members of the Zongli Yamen, and the emperor had other advisers.”
(i) Board of War 兵部 (whose head was 尚書; later in 1901 Qing dynasty formed 陸軍部)
(ii) Zongli Yamen 總理衙門 (1861-1901 when replaced with a Foreign Office 外務部 of ministry rank; short for 總理各國事務衙門; in charge of foreign affairs)
* 總理各國事務衙門
zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E7%B8%BD%E7%90%86%E5%90%84%E5%9C%8B%E4%BA%8B%E5%8B%99%E8%A1%99%E9%96%80
("在晚清以前，清朝並沒有正式的外交機構，因中國一向不承認其他國家與中國平等的關係，因此是以對待外藩（以朝貢相關事務為主）和處理商務事務的態度來處理與其他國家的關係，這些事務由禮部（處理朝貢事務）、理藩院（處理外藩蒙古、回部及诸番部、以及俄羅斯事務）、兩廣總督（處理廣州貿易事務）及在華傳教士（處理對洋人的翻譯，以及作為中國對來華使團的溝通代表）來處理")
(iii) In 1874, Japan “dispatched an expeditionary force to Taiwan (including some Americans”
* Charles Le Gendre
en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Charles_Le_Gendre
(1830-1899; born French, married an American and became a naturalized US citizen; section 1.4 Career in Japan and Korea: US consul at Amoy 1866-1872/ American [merchant] ship Rover 羅發號[事件; Mar 12, 1867; 13 Americans killed including wife of captain, but one Cantonese sailor escaped: according to Chinese Wikipedia under this name, but English Wikipedia says “more than two dozen” Americans were killed (see next posting)]/ "Le Gendre helped organize Japan's Taiwan Expedition of 1874, which he intended to personally accompany. However, Le Gendre was unexpectedly imprisoned for a brief time at Shanghai on the orders of the United States Consul-General for deserting the service, and thus never actually made it to Taiwan)"
* The Last Samurai
en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Last_Samurai
(a 2003 American film; starring Tom Cruise; “was inspired by the 1877 Satsuma Rebellion * * * also based on the stories of Jules Brunet, a French army captain who fought alongside Enomoto Takeaki in the earlier Boshin War and Frederick Townsend Ward, an American mercenary who helped Westernize the Chinese army by forming the Ever Victorious Army")
had nothing to do with Charles Le Gendre.
* gendre (French; noun masculine): “son-in-law”
en.wiktionary.org/wiki/gendre
(iv) Hosea Ballou Morse
en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hosea_Ballou_Morse
(HB Morse; 1855-1934; American)
(v) Thomas Francis Wade
en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thomas_Francis_Wade
(1818-1895; a British diplomat; Wade-Giles romanization of 1892)
(e) 牡丹社事件
(i) English Wikipedia has two pages:
(A) "Mudan Incident (1871)" (which is inaccurate insofar as Mudan Incident refers to the 1874 invasion, following the 1871 massacre.
(B) Japanese invasion of Taiwan (1874)
en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Japanese_invasion_of_Taiwan_(1874)
(“The Japanese won a decisive victory at the Battle of Stone Gate on May 22 [1874]. Thirty Taiwan tribesmen were either killed or mortally wounded in the battle, and a considerably greater number wounded. Japanese casualties were 6 killed and 30 wounded. [citation omitted] In November 1874 the Japanese forces withdrew from Taiwan after the Qing government agreed to an indemnity of 500,000 Kuping taels. Sir Harry Parkes, the British minister to Japan, characterised this transaction as ‘China's willingness to pay to be invaded’”)
There is no need to read the rest of this Wiki page.
(ii) I will give you the summary first about Mudan Incident before proceeding to Chinese-language material.
In 1871, 54 people from Miyako-jima were killed at southeast corner (屏東縣滿州鄉) of Taiwan by “高士佛社, 而非牡丹社” (both of the same Paiwan Tribe 排灣族). (In 1872, In 1872, four Japanese from 小田県 (presently 岡山県 in 本州) was killed by aboriginals in present-day 台東縣. In 1974 Japanese expedition landed in the southWEST corner of Taiwan 屏東縣車城鄉 and met 牡丹社 at 石門峽, a mountain pass. 台灣大百科全書 on 牡丹社事件: “1871年5月, 日軍在射寮（今屏東縣車城鄉）登陸， 清廷毫無所悉, 在英國駐華公使威妥瑪（Thomas Wade） 告知總理衙門， 才獲得訊息.”
(iii) 牡丹社事件
zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E7%89%A1%E4%B8%B9%E7%A4%BE%E4%BA%8B%E4%BB%B6
(中國方面稱之為牡丹社事件，而日本方面則稱為台湾出兵或是征台之役; sectionn 1.2 近因: 1871年10月18日（明治4年，同治10年）10月一艘琉球國宮古島向那霸上繳年貢的山原號， 回航時遭遇颱風，漂流至台灣東南部八瑤灣（即今之九棚灣） * * * 1872年日本政府單方廢止琉球王國，設置「琉球藩」，1873年日本政府外務卿副島種臣 [SOEJIMA Taneomi] 向清國總理衙門提起此事 * * * 1874年5月8日，日軍於社寮（今屏東縣車城鄉射寮村）登陸 * * * 5月22日，日本陸軍中校佐久間 左馬太 [SAKUMA Samata; 台湾総督/台灣總督 1906-1915] 率領日軍150人進抵石門（今屏東縣牡丹鄉石門村）遭到原住民強烈抵抗，最後日軍陸戰隊攀上峭壁居高臨下，情勢逆轉，原住民敗逃，牡丹社酋長阿祿古父子身亡)
(A) “宮古島向那霸上繳年貢.” “年貢” is unlikely. English Wiki, see (d)(ii) above uses “nintōzei poll tax.”
* jintōzei; nintōze 人頭税 【じんとうぜい; にんとうぜい】 (n): "poll tax" (The “jin” and “nin” are two of Chinese pronunciations for the kanji 人.)
* Miyako-jima was part of Ryukyu Kingdom 琉球國 (1429-1879).
(B) 牡丹鄉
library.taiwanschoolnet.org/cyberfair2007/hcps1/p31.htm
(“排灣族語『新保將』翻譯成漢語就是『牡丹』，加上鄉境內盛產野牡丹，在夏天開花期遍野都是艷麗的牡丹花，因此取名為牡丹。或者，因「牡丹社」的排灣語為 Sinvaudjan (割除葛藤之意），另有一說法是音近日文牡丹(Botan) 而得名，還有一說為當地盛產植物「野牡丹」因而取其特色而命名”)
(C) Japanese English dictionary:
* soeru 添える(P[rincipal]); 副える 【そえる】 (v): “(1) to garnish; to accompany (as a card does a gift); (2) to add to as support; to prop up; (3) to accompany (as an aid, guide, translator, etc)"
* tane 種 【たね】 (n): "seed"
(iv) (今) 屏東縣 地圖
(A) In 1971:
* 滿州鄉
zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/
滿州鄉(西北臨牡丹鄉; 西鄰車城鄉)
* For 九棚灣, see 屏東縣-九棚派出所地圖, undated
police.qmap.tw/1329206150
(地址：屏東縣滿州鄉九棚村港仔路32號)
(B) Japanese landing in 1974:
車城鄉 (台灣)
zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/車城鄉_(台灣)
(C) Japanese fighting in 1874, after the landing:
* 牡丹鄉
zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E7%89%A1%E4%B8%B9%E9%84%89
* 石門古戰場與牡丹社事件紀念公園. 屏東縣牡丹鄉公所, undated
www.pthg.gov.tw/TownMdt/CP.aspx?s=3352&cp=1&n=13559
("沿199號縣道進入牡丹鄉，隨即映入眼簾的便是壯麗的石門峽，兩山相對的石門天險，排灣語稱為「macacukes」，有相互支撐之意 [photo]”; 排灣族; 牡丹社頭目aruqu父子等多名原住民戰士在「石門之役」中奮戰而亡; 石門古戰場即位於本鄉與車城鄉交界處)
(f) “But soon Chonghou pulled off another failure that was indisputably his own, and the capstone of his career. * * * [in 1878] he was called on to negotiate a treaty with Russia. China had just enjoyed a rare series of military successes in Xinjiang, in north-west China, defeating independence forces that had been backed by Russia, which was anxious to keep China from consolidating control of the region. For once the Qing had the upper hand going into the talks. * * * In Paris he met the first official Chinese ambassador to Britain and France, Guo Songtao, who was stupefied at his lack of preparation and concluded that the mission would fail. (A highly respected official, Guo was hounded mercilessly for agreeing to sully his hands with foreigners; he lasted only three years in the job.)”
(i) in 1878 “he [Chonghou] was called on to negotiate a treaty with Russia. China had just enjoyed a rare series of military successes in Xinjiang, in north-west China, defeating independence forces that had been backed by Russia”
Xinjiang
en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Xinjiang
(“In 1865, Yaqub Beg, a warlord from the neighbouring Khanate of Kokand [presently straddling three nations in Central Asia, not China], entered Xinjiang via Kashgar and conquered nearly all of Xinjiang over the next six years [This was Dungan revolt (1862-1877) in (a)(iv) previously]. * * * In 1871, Russia took advantage of the chaotic situation and seized the rich Ili River valley, including Gulja [Uyghur for present-day 伊宁市]. At the end of this period, forces loyal to the Qing held onto only a few strongholds, including Tacheng 塔城市. Yaqub Beg's rule lasted until the Qing general Zuo Zongtang (also known as General Tso) reconquered the region between 1875 and 1877”)
(ii) “the first official Chinese ambassador to Britain and France, Guo Songtao”
(A) GUO Songtao 郭嵩燾
en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Guo_Songtao
(1818-1891; “Guo became the first Qing minister to be stationed in a western country. He served as an ambassador to England and France from 1877 through 1879 as part of England's demands after the Margary Affair to have a Chinese Ambassador in England”)
(B) Margary Affair 马嘉理事件 or 滇案
en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Margary_Affair
(junior British diplomat Augustus Raymond Margary was murdered on Feb 21, 1875; The crisis was only resolved in 1876 when Thomas Wade and Li Hongzhang signed the Chefoo Convention 煙臺條約 [signed at present-day Zhifu Island 芝罘島 of City of Yantai], which covered a number of items unrelated to the incident)
(g) “An exception to that general disdain, Tang Renze, writes in his biography of Chonghou that, to profit from history, we must learn from its 'anti-heroes.' Indeed—and from the corrupt, hidebound system that created China’s worst diplomat, promoting him and indulging his failures, until the last one.”
汤仁泽, 经世悲欢：崇厚传. 上海社会科学院出版社有限公司, 2009.
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发表于 12-26-2013 12:56:54
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