The book review stated, "The act of defining citizenship excluded Americans who remained loyal to the British crown.
Note:
(a)
(i) Is That Service Right? Service acceptable for DAR membership. Daughters of American Revolution (DAR) National Society, undated.
http://www.dar.org/natsociety/service_right.cfm?TP=Show&ID=97
("Signers of the Oaths of Allegiance. In 1776 the Continental Congress requested each state to take an oath of allegiance from each of its male citizens over 21 years of age in order to determine the strength of the patriot movement and to identify the loyalists. Those who took such an oath, or signed local declarations of independence from England, were guilty of treason under English law and subject to death by hanging.")
(ii) Article 3, Section 3, Clauses 1 and 2
http://press-pubs.uchicago.edu/founders/documents/a3_3_1-2s9.html
(Continental Congress, "Committee on Spies" (John Adams, Thomas Jefferson, John Rutledge, and Robert Livingston), June 5, 1776: "That all persons abiding within any of the United Colonies, and deriving protection from the laws of the same, owe allegiance to the said laws, and are members of such colony * * * That it be recommended to the legislatures of the several United Colonies, to pass laws for punishing, in such manner as to them shall seem fit, such persons before described")
(iii) Oaths of Enlistment and Oaths of Office. Center of Military History, US Army, undated.
http://www.history.army.mil/html/faq/oaths.html
("During the Revolutionary War, the Continental Congress established different oaths for the enlisted men and officers of the Continental Army * * * The first oath under the Constitution was approved by Act of Congress 29 September 1789 (Sec. 3, Ch. 25, 1st Congress). It applied to all commissioned officers, noncommissioned officers and privates in the service of the United States")
(b) Initiatives of colonies, in and after 1776.
(i) Oaths of Allegiances. Library of Congress, undated.
http://myloc.gov/Exhibitions/cre ... sOfAllegiances.aspx
(of Pennsylvania; two photos)
(ii) Oath of Allegiance.
http://templin.rootsweb.ancestry.com/oath.htm
("In the Pennsylvania Archives, Series II, Volume III, is this historical note: 'As early as May 1776, the Continental Congress declared, that it was "irreconcilable to reason and good conscience, that the American people should take oaths for the support of government under the crown of Great Britain," and it was "necessary that every kind of authority under the crown should be suppressed." The struggle which ensued between those in the Proprietary interest, represented principally by the members of the members of the Assembly, and the Whigs of the Revolution, was bitter, but the plan of the latter for the calling of a Convention was finally successful.'")
(iii) New Jersey in the American Revolution, 1763-1783: A Documentary History. New Jersey State Library Information Center, undated
("New Jersey in the American Revolution, 1763-1783: A Documentary History edited by Larry R Gerlach and published by the New Jersey Historical Commission is a compilation of primary sources relating to the American Revolution in New Jersey")
(A) "New Jersey State Loyalty Oath, September 19, 1776 [363]"
("oath of abjuration and allegiance to be taken by all civil and military officials in the state")
(B) "A Bergen County Oath of Allegiance, January 28, 1777 [365]"
The "363" and "365" are probably page numbers of the book.
(iv) Oath of Fidelity and Support
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oath_of_Fidelity_and_Support
(Maryland)
(c) Conservatism in the United States
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Conservatism_in_the_United_States
Quote:
"By the 1770s there was a large element tied to the British Empire, including wealthy merchants involved in international trade, and royal officials and patronage holders. Most of these conservative elites and their followers who remained loyal to the Crown are called Loyalists or 'Tories.' The Loyalists were 'conservatives' in that they tried to preserve the status quo of Empire against revolutionary change. Their leaders were men of wealth and property who loved order, respected their betters, looked down on their inferiors, and feared democratic rule by the rabble at home more than rule by a distant aristocracy. When it came to a choice between protecting their historic rights as Americans or remaining loyal to the King, they chose King and Empire.
"Loyalists willing to accept republican principles remained after the war—80% stayed on—while those who rejected republicanism went elsewhere in the British Empire (mostly to Canada), taking their conservatism with them. The new principles of the Revolution became the core American political values agreed to by all sides, and became part of the core principles of what is now called American conservatism.
Thus the American Revolution disrupted the old networks of conservative elites. The departure of so many royal officials, rich merchants and landed gentry destroyed the hierarchical networks that had dominated most of the colonies.
(d) Maya Jasanoff, Liberty's Exiles: American Loyalists in the Revolutionary World. Knopf, 2011.
(i) A Note from the publisher.
http://knopf.knopfdoubleday.com/ ... s-by-maya-jasanoff/
(ii) Book itself.
books.google.com/books/about/Liberty_s_Exiles.html
(e) Richard B Lillich, Confiscation of Property. Stanley I Kutler, ed. in chief, Dictionary of American History, 3rd. Charles Scribner's Sons (2003)
http://www.encyclopedia.com/doc/1G2-3401800983.html
("CONFISCATION OF PROPERTY has occurred in the United States during wartime, ever since the revolutionary war. As a means of financing hostilities against England, the Continental Congress declared in 1776 that the property of Loyalists was subject to seizure. By the end of 1781, every state had passed a confiscation act, and Loyalists had lost property worth millions of pounds. Article V of the Definitive Treaty of Peace (1783) provided that Congress would urge the states to compensate former owners whose property had been seized, but only South Carolina responded to this plea. With the United States itself refusing to provide compensation, the British Parliament ultimately indemnified a large number of Loyalists in an amount exceeding £3 million.")
(f) Loyalists and Loyalism in the American Revolution. History Teaching Institute (HTI), Ohio State University (OSU), undated
http://hti.osu.edu/history-lesso ... s-history/loyalists
("Loyalists and Loyalism in the American Revolution
Loyalists, those colonists that affirmed Britain’s authority over the colonies, were described at the time as 'persons inimical to the liberties of America.' In the republican ideology of the new nation, tories were vilified as offenders against the public good who acted out of ignorance, cupidity, or moral obtuseness. But if the political complexion between 1775 and 1783 is accurately described as equally divided among patriots, loyalists, and those diffident or disaffected, understanding loyalism is essential to unlocking the puzzle of revolutionary America. Between 60,000 and 80,000 Americans chose to go into exile after 1783. Among these were many of the ablest and wealthiest men in colonial life, but the group also included ordinary men and women, as well as a thousand black loyalists who eventually settled in Sierra Leone. In a tri-racial society, Native Americans were also forced to choose sides. Indeed, loyalists were not an identifiable segment of the wartime population. Outside the British-controlled garrison towns, loyalism was often fluid, especially in the backcountry. Where the patriot army was weak, citizens could afford to be loyalist or neutral, but changes in military power also made loyalism precarious. Anglicans were more likely to be loyalists, but pietist sects such as the Mennonites, Dunkers, and Brethren also faced difficult political and religious dilemmas, as did the Quakers. As recent arrivals in America, John Wesley’s Methodists were more likely to hold loyalist sympathies. These factors made the war at times partisan, civil, or revolutionary in character. More than simply the losers in the war, loyalists were the obverse of the new nation’s ideology without which the Revolution is incompletely understood.")
(g) History of the United States
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_the_United_States
(He [George Washington] limited the British control to New York and a few places while keeping Patriot control of the great majority of the population. The Loyalists, whom the British counted upon too heavily, comprised about 20% of the population but never were well organized)
(h) Lobby Treasures Exhibit 2011; Case II - British Loyalists and the American Revolution. American Philosophical Society (APS), undated.
http://www.amphilsoc.org/library/lobbyexhibit/treasures2011/case2
The text (footnotes omitted):
"American 'Loyalists,' also known as 'Tories,' were those individuals who remained loyal to Great Britain during the American Revolution. Though exact numbers may never be known common estimates claim that Loyalists averaged about one-third of the overall population.
"Loyalists, like Patriots, represented all classes of colonial American society. They included great landowners such as the De Lanceys and Jessups of New York, wealthy merchants like the Whartons and Pembertons of Philadelphia, and professional classes such as lawyers, physicians, printers, teachers, royal officials and Anglican clergy. Often there was no instantaneous line between Patriots and Loyalists. Many who would eventually take up arms for Britain favored early rumblings of revolution. Most future-Loyalists initially resisted objectionable actions of the British Parliament, including the Stamp Act, Townshend Duties and the Intolerable Acts. Many even supported the calling of the first Continental congress. In general, the Loyalists were eager to preserve their rights through petitions and legal protests, and sometimes were willing to use force. What they strongly opposed was separation from the British Empire. For this reason, the Declaration of Independence caused an irreparable breach between Loyalists and Patriots.
"Only after the battle of Lexington on April 19, 1775 did the Patriot and Loyalist parties begin to solidify. Large numbers of Loyalists gathered in support of the Crown, and some even formed militia units under commissioned officers. Their numbers amounted to 60,000 troops. There were also those who began fighting with the Patriots, who then turned their allegiance to the Crown. Meanwhile, the American Patriot authorities took increasingly stringent measures against Loyalists, including oaths of allegiance to the new governments required for the rights of citizenship, voting, holding political office and enjoying legal protections. In many cases, those who refused to take the oath were denied the right of pursuing their professions, acquiring or disposing property and free speech. If such measures failed to persuade, Loyalists could be jailed, sent to detention camps or tarred and feathered. Almost every state government passed laws that exiled individuals who refused the oath. Before the end of the Revolutionary War about 200,000 Loyalists were killed, banished or voluntarily left the American colonies for other parts of the British Empire.
"At Thomas Paine’s suggestion the exiled Loyalists suffered the confiscation of their property to pay the costs of the War. As a result, claims totaling £10 million were filed with a British Parliamentary commission established in 1783.
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发表于 4-1-2012 10:10:35
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